An oceanic climate, also called marine west coast climate, maritime climate, Cascadian climate and British climate for Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'' and subtropical highland for Köppen ''Cfb'' or ''Cwb'', is a type of climate typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of some of the world's continents. This climate generally features warm, but not hot summers and cool, but not cold winters, with a narrow annual temperature range. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is more evenly dispersed through the year. It is the predominant climate type across much of Europe, coastal northwestern North America, portions of southern South America and Africa, southeast Australia, New Zealand, as well as isolated locations elsewhere.

Properties

Climates near the ocean generally have warm (but not hot) summers, and cool (but not cold) winters. They are characterized by a narrower annual range of temperatures than are encountered in other places at a comparable latitude, and generally do not have the extremely dry summers of Mediterranean climates. Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents.

Similar climates in thermal range are also found in tropical highlands even at considerable distance from any coastline. Generally, they fall into Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'' or ''Cwb''. The narrow range of temperatures results from the slight thermal range of temperatures between seasons characteristic of tropical lowlands. Altitudes are high enough that some places have at least one month cooler than and do not qualify for grouping in the true tropical climates. This variation of the oceanic climate is termed “subtropical highland climate”. Unlike the norm in true oceanic climates, subtropical highland climates may have a marked winter drought. Agricultural potential in both oceanic climates and subtropical highland climates are similar.

Precipitation

thumb|right|Between October and May, Seattle is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, except in certain tropical highland areas, which would have tropical or humid subtropical climates (with a dry season in winter) if not for the high altitude making them cooler (Koppen ''Cwb''). Under some variations of the Koeppen classification system, parts of the Pacific Northwest and south-central Chile are sometimes considered as having a Mediterranean climate (Koppen "Csb") due to a drying trend in the summer. However despite the "Csb" designation, these areas are generally considered oceanic as opposed to "Mediterranean".

In most areas with an oceanic climate, for the majority of the year precipitation comes in the form of rain. However during the winter, despite its C classification, the majority of areas with this climate see some snowfall annually. Outside of Australia, South Africa and tropical highland locations, most areas with an oceanic climate experiences at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the oceanic climate zone (“subpolar oceanic climates”, described in greater detail below), snowfall is more frequent and commonplace.

Temperature

Overall temperature characteristics vary among oceanic climates; those at the lowest latitudes are nearly subtropical from a thermal standpoint, but more commonly a mesothermal regime prevails, with cool, but not cold, winters and warm, but not hot, summers. Summers are also cooler (often much cooler) than in areas with a humid subtropical climate. Average temperature of warmest month must be less than and that of the coldest month warmer than although American scientists prefer in the coldest month. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the aforementioned subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc''), with long but relatively mild winters and cool and short summers (average temperatures of at least for one to three months). Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile and Argentina in the Southern Hemisphere.

Locations

The British Isles experience a typically maritime climate, with prevailing south-westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean. The annual average temperature range in the British Isles is only about . Although the west coast of Alaska experiences a maritime climate, the absence of an equally significant warm Pacific current in the upper-mid latitudes means that these regions are generally colder in winter, with more precipitation falling as snow. Typical oceanic climates are also found in the Netherlands, Belgium, most of France, western Germany, northern Spain, etc.

All mid-latitude oceanic climates are classified as humid. Some rainshadow climates with thermal régimes similar to those of oceanic climates but steppe-like (''BSk'') or even desert-like (''BWk'') scarcity of precipitation include lowland valleys of Washington and Oregon to the east of the Cascade Range, Patagonia in southern Argentina, and the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Another example are coastal areas in southeast Western Australia.

Under Koeppen-Geiger, many areas generally considered to have Oceanic climates are classified as cool summer, dry-summer subtropical (''Csb''). These areas are not usually associated with a typical Mediterranean climate, and include much of the Pacific Northwest, southern Chile, parts of west-central Argentina, and northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Many of these areas would be classified Oceanic (''Cfb''), except dry-summer patterns meet Koeppen's ''Cs'' thresholds, and cities such as Concepción, Chile; Seattle, Washington; Portland, Oregon; Victoria, British Columbia; and Vancouver, British Columbia can be classified as ''Csb''.

The only noteworthy area of Maritime Climate at or near sea-level within Africa is in South Africa from Mossel Bay on the Western Cape coast to Plettenberg Bay, with additional pockets of this climate inland of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coast. Interior southern Africa, elevated portions of eastern Africa, and Mozambique also share this climate type. It is usually warm most of the year with no pronounced rainy season, but slightly more rain in autumn and spring. The only significant areas where this climate is found in Asia is on the Black Sea coast in northern Turkey, in small pockets along or near the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan and in small pockets along or near the Tsugaru Strait in northern Japan. The oceanic climate is prevalent in a good portion of western Europe and the European part of northern Turkey. The oceanic climate is prevalent in the more southerly locations of Oceania. A mild Maritime climate is in existence in New Zealand, the island of Tasmania, Australia, southern parts of Victoria and New South Wales, Australia. It can also be found along the western areas of the south coast of Western Australia. The oceanic climate is found in isolated pockets in South America. It exists in central Argentina, southern Chile and parts of Brazil, Ecuador and Colombia. The oceanic climate exists in an arc spreading across the north-western coast of North America, largely in the Pacific Northwest. It includes the western parts of Washington and Oregon, the Alaskan panhandle, western portions of British Columbia, and north-western California. A significant portion of oceanic climate exhibited in North America features a drying trend in the summer, thus falling under the Marine West Coast subcategory explained below.

Varieties

Subtropical highland variety (Cwb)

The Subtropical Highland variety of the oceanic climate exists in elevated portions of the world that are either within the tropics or subtropics, though it is typically found in mountainous locations in some tropical countries. Despite the latitude, due to the higher altitudes of these regions, it tends to share characteristics with oceanic climates, though it also tends to experience noticeably drier weather during the "low-sun" season.

In locations outside the tropics, other than the drying trend in the winter, Subtropical Highland climates tend to be essentially identical to an oceanic climate, complete with mild summers, noticeably cooler winters and in some instances, some snowfall. In the tropics, a Subtropical Highland climate tends to feature spring-like weather year-round. Temperatures here remain relatively constant throughout the year and snowfall is seldom seen. Areas with this climate feature monthly averages below but above (or using American standards). At least one month's average temperature is below . Without the elevation, many of these regions would likely feature either tropical or humid subtropical climates. These regions usually carry a ''Cwb'' or ''Cfb'' designation. .

This type of climate exists in parts of east, south and south-eastern Africa, some mountainous areas across southern Europe, sections of mountainous Latin America, some mountainous areas across Southeast Asia, higher elevations of the southern Appalachians, and parts of the Himalayas. It also occurs in a few areas of Australia, although average high temperatures during summers there tend to be higher and the climate drier than is typical of Subtropical Highland Climates, with maximums sometimes exceeding .

Subpolar variety (Cfc)

Areas with Subpolar Oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to Polar regions. As a result of its location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates. Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar Oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than Subarctic climates or Humid continental climates, featuring milder winters than these climates. Subpolar Oceanic climates feature only one to three months of average monthly temperatures that are at least 10°C (50°F). Like oceanic climates, none of its average monthly temperatures fall below -3°C (26.6°F). It typically carries a ''Cfc'' designation. This variant of an oceanic climate is found in parts of coastal Iceland, the Faroe Islands, small sections of the Scottish Highlands, northwestern coastal areas of Norway reaching to 70°N on some islands, uplands near the coast of southwestern Norway, southern islands of Alaska and northern parts of the Alaskan Panhandle, the far south of Chile and Argentina, and a few highland areas of Tasmania and the Australian Alps. The classifications used to this regime are Cfc.

Dry summers

Despite the fact that dry summers is a feature which differentiates Csb areas from oceanic climates, some areas of Csb climate are typically considered "Oceanic" as opposed to "Mediterranean" (see Mediterranean climate). Technically, this version of the Oceanic climate meets Koppen's minimum precipitation threshold limit of (or under Koppen-Geiger), resulting in a ''Csb'' designation. Nevertheless, due to the higher annual accumulation of precipitation and generally cloudier conditions that these regions experiences in comparison to other areas with Csb climates, scientists such as Trewartha consider this climate oceanic (Do, which is an oceanic climate classification under the Trewartha system). This is especially the case in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada, some sections of coastal Chile, in Galicia in northwestern Spain and in northern Portugal, where conditions are wetter and generally cloudier during the course of the year than typical Csb climates . Nevertheless, those regions have several Mediterranean features : Greater annual hours of sunshine than the typical oceanic domain, especially during the drier summer months. For example, La Coruna or Seattle have at least 2000 hours of sunshine, while the values of the typical Cfb regions are far below (almost always below 2000 hours). . Vegetation which is partially adapted to xeric conditions. So the cork oak, a typically acidophilus Mediterranean species, and which is widely distributed in Portugal and in southern-half of Galicia. In contrast, beech or birch, widely distributed in the Cfb area, are not common in Iberia, mostly confined to the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountains. In addition, Garry oak, typical of California, can be found as far north as Vancouver Island. Douglas fir which is the typical species of the Pacific Northwestern forests, is very well adapted to the summer drought. Forest fires are regular in those regions due to the summer-drought.

See also

Climate classification

Temperate climate

Humid subtropical climate

Subtropical climate

Continental climate

Polar climate

References

External links

University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point: Marine (Humid) West Coast Climate

EPIC Data Collection On-line ocean observational data collection

NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations

http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate/Older/Maritime_Climate.html

Category:Climate Category:Köppen climate classifications Category:Climate of Africa Category:Climate of Asia Category:Climate of Australia Category:Climate of Europe Category:Climate of North America Category:Climate of South America

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region	Western Philosophers
era	17th-century philosophy(Modern Philosophy)
colour	#B0C4DE
name	John Locke
signature	John Locke Signature.svg
birth date	29 August 1632
birth place	Wrington, Somerset, England
death place	Essex, England
school tradition	British Empiricism, Social Contract, Natural Law
main interests	Metaphysics, Epistemology, Political Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, Education
influences	Plato, Aristotle, Avicenna, Ibn Tufail, Aquinas, Grotius, Samuel Rutherford, Descartes, Hooker, Robert Filmer, Hobbes, Polish Brethren (religious group, whose ideas were incorporated into Locke's theories)
influenced	Hume, Kant, Berkeley, Paine, Smith and many subsequent political philosophers, including the American Founding Fathers, Arthur Schopenhauer
notable ideas	Tabula rasa, "government with the consent of the governed"; state of nature; rights of life, liberty and property }}

John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the ''Father of Liberalism'', was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.

Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of ''consciousness''. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or ''tabula rasa''. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.

Biography

Locke's father, who was also named John Locke, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna, who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene, was a tanner's daughter and reputed to be very beautiful. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.

In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and his father's former commander. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the English Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member.

Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue.

Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking an effect that would become evident in the ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.''

Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life.

It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become the Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks. He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the ''Two Treatises of Government''. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date, however, and it is now viewed as a more general argument against Absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.

However, Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme. In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Orange's wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile his aforementioned ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', the ''Two Treatises of Civil Government'' and ''A Letter Concerning Toleration'' all appearing in quick succession.

Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton.

He died in 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver, east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children.

Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time.

Influence

Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State. He had a strong influence on Voltaire who called him "le sage Locke". His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In fact, one passage from the ''Second Treatise'' is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a "long train of abuses." Such was Locke's influence that Thomas Jefferson wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton ... I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences". Today, most contemporary libertarians claim Locke as an influence.

But Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Locke's ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (1690) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the self.

Theories of religious tolerance

Locke, writing his ''Letters Concerning Toleration'' (1689–92) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance. Three arguments are central: (1) Earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints; (2) Even if they could, enforcing a single "true religion" would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence; (3) Coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.

Constitution of Carolina

Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the United States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal African Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the ''Fundamental Constitution of the Carolinas'' while Shaftesbury's secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. For example, Martin Cohen notes that as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (1673–4) and a member of the Board of Trade (1696–1700) Locke was, in fact, "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude". Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having been intended to justify the displacement of the Native Americans. Because of his opposition to aristocracy and slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy and racism, or of caring only for the liberty of English capitalists.

Theory of value and property

Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labour.

In Chapter V of his ''Second Treatise'', Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce those goods or utilise property to produce goods beneficial to human society.

Locke stated his belief, in his ''Second Treatise'', that nature on its own provides little of value to society; he provides the implication that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value. This is used as supporting evidence for the interpretation of Locke's labour theory of property as a labour theory of value, in his implication that goods produced by nature are of little value, unless combined with labour in their production and that labour is what gives goods their value.

Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labour. In addition, he believed property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily." Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.

Political theory

Locke's political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his “Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions", basis for the phrase in the American Declaration of Independence; ''"Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"''.

Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day. Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Limits to accumulation

Labour creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s capacity to consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offence against nature. However, with the introduction of “durable” goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus not offend the natural law. The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be “hoarded up without injury to anyone,” since they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labour theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory developed in a letter he wrote titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but in the end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth.

On price theory

Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691, titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''. Supply is quantity and demand is rent. “The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers.” and “that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.” The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on “money answers all things” (Ecclesiastes) or “rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough,” and “varies very little...” Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant, Locke concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as land, which has value because “by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income.” Demand for money is almost the same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For medium of exchange “money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life.” For loanable funds, “it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income ... or interest.”

Monetary thoughts

Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a "counter" to measure value, and as a "pledge" to lay claim to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it.

Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.

He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers and brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, had a negative influence on both one's personal and the public economy that they supposedly contributed to.

The self

Locke defines the self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends". He does not, however, ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man." The Lockean self is therefore a self-aware and self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body.

In his ''Essay'', Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an "empty" mind, a ''tabula rasa'', which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas.

John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' was influenced by a 17th century Latin translation ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' (published by Edward Pococke) of the Arabic philosophical novel ''Hayy ibn Yaqzan'' by the 12th century Andalusian-Islamic philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West). Ibn Tufail demonstrated the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment through his Arabic philosophical novel novel ''Hayy ibn Yaqzan'' in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone.

Locke's ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education'' is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."

Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences." He argued that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the ''tabula rasa''. In his ''Essay'', in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."

"Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his ''Observations on Man'' (1749).

Religious beliefs

Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as deriving from his religious beliefs. Locke's religious trajectory began in Calvinist trinitarianism, but by the time of the ''Reflections'' (1695) Locke was advocating not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian Christology; with veiled denial of the pre-existence of Christ. However Wainwright (Oxford, 1987) notes that in the posthumously published ''Paraphrase'' (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like Biddle, and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an Arian position.

List of major works

(1689) ''A Letter Concerning Toleration''

*(1690) ''A Second Letter Concerning Toleration''

*(1692) ''A Third Letter for Toleration''

(1689) ''Two Treatises of Government''

(1690) ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''

(1693) ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education''

(1695) ''The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures''

*(1695) ''A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity''

Major unpublished or posthumous manuscripts

(1660) ''First Tract of Government'' (or ''the English Tract'')

(''c.''1662) ''Second Tract of Government'' (or ''the Latin Tract'')

(1664) ''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature'' (definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al., eds., John Locke, ''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).

(1667) ''Essay Concerning Toleration''

(1706) ''Of the Conduct of the Understanding''

(1707) ''A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians''

See also

Libertarianism

List of liberal theorists

References

Notes

Secondary literature

Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. ''Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. (Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.)

Ayers, Michael R., 1991. ''Locke. Epistemology & Ontology'' Routledge (The standard work on Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding.)

Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967). ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution''. Harvard Uni. Press. (Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.)

G. A. Cohen, 1995. 'Marx and Locke on Land and Labour', in his ''Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality'', Oxford University Press.

Cox, Richard, ''Locke on War and Peace'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. (A discussion of Locke's theory of international relations.)

Chappell, Vere, ed., 19nn. ''The Cambridge Companion to Locke''. Cambridge Uni. Press.

Dunn, John, 1984. ''Locke''. Oxford Uni. Press. (A succinct introduction.)

—, 1969. ''The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the "Two Treatises of Government"''. Cambridge Uni. Press. (Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.)

Hudson, Nicholas, "John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism," in: ''Nominalism and Literary Discourse'', ed. Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283–99.

Macpherson. C. B. ''The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). (Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism).

Pangle, Thomas, ''The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of Locke'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; paperback ed., 1990), 334 pages. (Challenges Dunn's, Tully's, Yolton's, and other conventional readings.)

Strauss, Leo. ''Natural Right and History'', chap. 5B (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). (Argues from a non-Marxist point of view for a deep affinity between Hobbes and Locke.)

Strauss, Leo. "Locke's Doctrine of Natural law," ''American Political Science Review'' 52 (1958) 490–501. (A critique of W. von Leyden's edition of Locke's unpublished writings on natural law.)

Tully, James, 1980. ''A Discourse on Property : John Locke and his Adversaries''. Cambridge Uni. Press

Waldron, Jeremy, 2002. ''God, Locke and Equality''. Cambridge Uni. Press.

Yolton, J. W., ed., 1969. ''John Locke: Problems and Perspectives''. Cambridge Uni. Press.

Zuckert, Michael, ''Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy''. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.

''Locke Studies'', appearing annually, publishes scholarly work on John Locke.

External links

Works

Links to online books by John Locke

''The Works of John Locke''

*1823 Edition, 10 Volumes on PDF files, and additional resources

*1824 Edition, 9 volumes in multiple formats

John Locke Manuscripts

Updated versions of ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', ''Second Treatise of Government'', and ''Letter on Toleration'', edited by Jonathan Bennett

Locke, ''Two Treatises of Government,'' ed. Thomas Hollis (A. Millar et al., 1764) ''See original text in The Online Library of Liberty''

Resources

Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Locke

John Locke Bibliography

John Locke’s Theory of Knowledge by Caspar Hewett

The Digital Locke Project

Portraits of Locke

Locke links

A complex and positive answer to question Was Locke a Liberal? – by Jerome Huyler

Timeline of the Life and Work of John Locke at The Online Library of Liberty

Locke on Property: A Bibliographical Essay by Karen Vaughn The Online Library of Liberty.

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name	Tanya Roberts
birth date	October 15, 1955
birth place	The Bronx, New York City, United States
birth name	Victoria Leigh Blum
yearsactive	1975–present
occupation	Actress
spouse	Barry Roberts (1974-2006) }}

Victoria Leigh Blum (born October 15, 1955), professionally recognized as Tanya Roberts, is an American actress best known for her role in as Julie Rogers on the fifth and final season of ''Charlie's Angels'' (1980-1981) and as Midge Pinciotti on ''That '70s Show'' (1998-2001).

She later headlined the films: ''The Beastmaster'', ''A View to a Kill'', and ''Sheena''. Roberts was groomed as a Hollywood sex symbol during the early 1980s.

Early life

Blum was born in The Bronx of Irish and Jewish descent. Her father was an ink pen salesman. Her parents divorced when she was a teenager. She lived with her mother in Toronto for several years, where she started formulating a photo portfolio and laying plans for a career. At age 15, she abandoned her studies to marry and lived for a while hitch-hiking across the United States, until her mother-in-law annulled the union.

She returned to New York City and became a fashion and cover model. After meeting a psychology student, Barry Roberts (while waiting in line for a movie), she proposed to him in a subway station and they were soon married. While Barry pursued a career as a screenwriter, she began to study at the Actors Studio with Lee Strasberg and Uta Hagen under the name Tanya Roberts.

Acting career

1970s

Her career began as a model in TV ads for Ultra Brite, Clairol and Cool Ray sunglasses. She played serious roles in the Off-Broadway productions, ''Picnic'' and ''Antigone''. She also supported herself as an Arthur Murray dance instructor. Her film debut was the 1975 thriller, ''Forced Entry''. This was followed in 1976 by ''The Yum-Yum Girls'', a comedy.

In 1977, as her husband was securing his own screenwriting career, the couple moved to Hollywood. The following year, Roberts participated in the drama, ''Fingers''. Roles in the 1979 cult-movie, ''Tourist Trap'', ''Racket'' and ''California Dreaming'' followed. Roberts was featured in several television pilots that were never picked up: ''Zuma Beach'' (a 1978 comedy); ''Pleasure Cove'' (1979); and ''Waikiki'' (1980).

1980s

In 1980, Roberts was chosen from some 2,000 candidates to replace Shelley Hack in the television series, ''Charlie's Angels'' (in what would be the last season of the series). She was featured on the February 9, 1981 cover of ''People'' magazine and afterward was offered more ambitious projects. In 1982, Roberts played Kiri in ''The Beastmaster''. She was featured in a nude pictorial in ''Playboy'' to help promote the movie, appearing on that issue's October 1982 cover.

In 1983, Roberts filmed the Italian-made, and little-known adventure, ''Paladini-storia d'armi e d'amori'' (''Paladins—the story of love and arms''; also released as ''Hearts and Armour''), based on the medieval novel, ''Orlando Furioso''. She played the role of Velda, a buxom secretary to private detective, Mike Hammer, in the television movie, ''Murder Me, Murder You''. The two-part pilot spawned the syndicated television series, ''Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer''. She declined to continue the role in the Mike Hammer series so she could work on her next project, ''Sheena: Queen of the Jungle''. The movie was a box office and critical disaster, garnering her a nomination for "Worst Actress" at the Razzie Awards.

Her subsequent appearance as Bond girl, Stacey Sutton, a well-educated and articulate geologist, in ''A View to a Kill'' (1985), which provided her a number of scenes with Roger Moore's James Bond. She again found herself nominated by the critics for a Razzie Award. Her career took a downturn. Later films in the 1980s included ''Body Slam'' (1987), an action movie set in the professional wrestling world; and ''Purgatory'', a movie about a woman wrongfully imprisoned in Africa.

1990spresent

In 1991, Roberts starred in the erotic thriller, ''Inner Sanctum'' (1991), alongside Margaux Hemingway. In 1992, she played Kay Egan in ''Sins of Desire''. She appeared on the cable TV series, ''Hot Line'', in 1994; and in the video game, ''The Pandora Directive'', in 1996.

In 1998, she took the role of Midge Pinciotti on the successful, long-running television sitcom, ''That '70s Show''. Roberts claimed to ''E! True Hollywood Story'' that she left the series in 2001 because her husband, Barry Roberts, had become terminally ill. Barry Roberts died in 2006. In 2008, Tanya Roberts wrote the foreword to the book, ''The Q Guide to Charlie's Angels''.

References

External links

Official website

Category:1955 births Category:American film actors Category:American television actors Category:Living people Category:People from the Bronx Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American people of Jewish descent

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